PERSPECTIVES OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

INTRODUCTION Social institutions have been variously perceived by different Sociologists. Three (3) of these main perspectives – functionalist, conflict and interactionists are presented in this unit. Furthermore, the institutions are presented as pivotal or basic institutions because they perform some functions that are essential for the survival of the group and individuals in the society. Finally, the characteristics exhibited by virtually all the social institutions are considered. Theory of Institutions Functionalist View One way to understand social institutions is to see how they fulfill essential functions. Sociologists have identified five major tasks or functional prerequisites that a society must accomplish if it is to survive. (a) Replacing Members or Personnel: Any group or society must replace personnel or members when they die, leave or become incapacitated. This is accomplished through such means as immigration, annexation, normal sexual reproduction of members. (b) Teaching New Recruits: No group or society can survive if many of its members reject the established behaviour and responsibility. Therefore, finding or producing new members is not sufficient. The group or society must encourage recruits to learn and accept its values and customs. This learning can take place formally within schools or through interaction and negotiation in peer groups. (c) Producing and Distributing Goods and Services: Any relatively permanent group or society must provide and distribute desired goods and services for its members. Each society establishes a set of rules for allocation of financial and other resources. (d) Preserving Order: Preserving order and protecting itself from attack is a basic need of each society. If it fails, the society runs the risk of extinction. (e) Providing and Maintaining a Sense of Purpose People must feel motivated to continue as members of a group or society in order to fulfill all requirements mentioned above. Patriotism assists people in developing and maintaining a sense of purpose. Tribal identities, or religions values or personal moral codes are especially meaningful as motivators. If an individual does not have a sense of purpose, he or she has little reason to contribute to a society’s survival. Conflict View Conflict theorists do not agree with the functionalist approach to social institutions. Although both perspectives agree that institutions are organized to meet basic social needs, conflict theorists object to the implication that the outcome is necessarily efficient and desirable. From a conflict perspective, the present organization of social institution is no accident. Major institutions, such as education, help maintain the privileges of the most powerful individuals and groups within a society, while contributing to the powerlessness of others. They argue that social institutions such as education have an inherently conservative nature. That it is difficult to implement educational reforms that promote equal opportunity. Although, from a functional perspective, social change may be dysfunctional (i.e. plays negative roles), since it often lead to instability. However, from a conflict perspective, why should we preserve the existing social structure if it is unfair and discriminatory? Interactionist View Interactionist theorists emphasize those roles and statuses that we accept, the group to which we belong, and the institutions within which we function condition our social behaviour. For example, the social roles associated with being a judge occur within the larger context of the criminal justice system. The status of ‘judge’ stands in relation to other statuses, such as attorney, plaintiff, defendant, and witness, as well as to the social institution of government. Although courts and prisons have great symbolic importance, the judicial system derives its continued significance from the roles people carryout in social interactions. Social Institutions as Pivotal Institutions In a nutshell, certain human functions are essential to the survival of the individual and the group. In a skeleton form the following institutions have become so basic to the society. i. Family: - Every society develops a social arrangement to legitimize (authorize) mating and the care and socializing of the young. ii. Education: - The young must also be inducted into the culture and taught the necessary values and skills. In simple societies this is accomplished largely within the kinship system, but in modern societies a separate system of education develops. iii. Economy: - Every society organizes its population to work, to produce, and to distribute material goods. iv. Polity: - Every society develops a governing system of power and authority, which ensures social control within a system of rights and rules, protects and guarantees established interests, and mediates among conflicting groups. v. Religion and Science: - In past societies there was always a sense of sacredness about their life-ways, which then was a powerful integrating and cohesive force. Religion gave cultural expression in symbol and rite to this sense of the sacred. But in modern societies religion performs this integrating function but weakly, if at all. The legitmation that religion once provided, science now does, though not in exactly the same way. But it is science that claims to possess the only valid knowledge, and which then legitimizes a wide range of practices and actions in modern society. Characteristics of Social Institutions Social institutions exhibit the following characteristics i. Durability: - Because the members of each generation face the same basic problems, and because they maintain ties with both the past and the future through their parents and their children, the organized habits we call “institutions” are durable. ii. Dynamism and Constant Change: - People are not totally conforming but act as individuals. Societal members both follow institutional patterns, and continually create new patterns. The forms of these enduring institutions are therefore constantly changing. iii. Pattern Maintenance: - Besides helping individuals satisfy some of their basic needs, institutions also provide the cement that holds society together. If individual lived his own way and did only his “own thing”, we would soon face utter chaos. Without some means of steady support, parents might abandon their infants or let them die. In other words, institutions enable societies to keep functioning. Institutions are foundations, or pillars of society. iv. Interdependence: - Institutions are interdependent. Usually, the child first learns about the value of making a good living, about the necessity for order, about religious principles, and about educational goals in the family setting. The family institution supports the other institutions, and is in turn supported by them. The condition of the economy in your society determines whether you can obtain a good job and establish your own family. Your religion may teach that birth control is wrong. If you and others are faithful to such teaching, the results may affect all other institutions. v. Tension between stability and Change: - Institutions display tension between stability and change. Workable ways of doing things, repeated over and over, tend to become rigid forms. This is why mere habits become institutions. Looked at from this point of view, institutions tend to maintain stability and status quo. But as new ways of doing things appear and are found workable, they challenge stability and impel (push) institutions toward change. vi. Mere Abstraction of Organizations: - Institutions are mere abstract concepts of organized habits and standard ways of doing things. We cannot see institutions. What we can see are families, schools, banks, churches, prisons, mental hospitals. But these would be nothing but empty symbols without one vital ingredient: individuals. The behaviour of individuals gives institutions their form. And institutions give form to individual behaviour. CONCLUSION The survival of the society depends on the effectiveness of social institutions in the performance of their specialized functions. Also, it is noteworthy that the conflict orientation about social institution was considered to balance up the earlier views of the functionalists. The implications of the social institutions for conditioning individuals’ behaviour cannot be overemphasized. Finally, the durability and interindependence of these social institutions reinforce the society and promote predictability. SUMMARY In this unit, various theoretical perspectives on social institutions were presented. The characteristics of social institutions were taken. Finally, the roles of social institutions as pivotal or essential institution were discussed.